Scholars argue that gender is socially constructed; what do they mean by this? Give examples from the reading this week. After you've discussed the meaning of the social construction of gender, discuss a specific example of how gender has been constructed in your own lived experiences?
An initial response to Dr. Levesque’s question should be about 250 words.
26 contexts.org
bathroom battlegrounds and penis panics
by kristen schilt and laurel westbrook
In January 2008, the city commission in Gainesville,
Florida passed an ordinance prohibiting discrimi-
nation on the basis of “gender identity and gender
expression” in employment and public accom-
modations (such as public restrooms and locker
rooms). Advocates argued that the legislation
was a key step toward addressing discrimination
against transgender and gender variant people.
However, 14 months later voters were considering
a ballot initiative to overturn the law.
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27S U M M E R 2 0 1 5 c o n t e x t s
Even though there had been no reported problems, those
that were pushing for the repeal of the new ordinance suggested
that such protections had unanticipated, dangerous conse-
quences for women and children. Citizens for Good Public Policy
ran a TV ad that featured a young, white girl on a playground.
She jumps off a merry-go-round, and, alone, enters a doorway
clearly marked “Women’s Restroom.” A moment later, a White
man with a scraggly beard, dark sunglasses, and baseball cap
slung low on his forehead approaches the door, looks around
furtively, and enters. As the door swings shut, the ad cuts to
black and the message appears: “Your City Commission made
this legal. Is this what you want for Gainesville?”
The question at the heart of the ballot initiative—the place
of transgender people in society—has never been a more visible
issue than it is today. Advocates for transgender rights have
effectively demonstrated that transgender and gender variant
people face large-scale discrimination in areas such as employ-
ment, housing, and education. Yet, while city and state policies
to address such discrimination are rapidly expanding, each new
transgender-supportive law or policy typi-
cally results in an outbreak of protest.
As sociologists of gender, we were
interested in accounting for the opposition
to transgender rights in the face of greater
societal acceptance of transgender people,
as it presents a puzzling aspect of gender:
why are transgender people accepted in
some spaces and not others? We did a
content analysis of media articles about
transgender-inclusive legislation from 2006-2010, and discov-
ered that the Gainesville ad was not an anomaly. Opponents of
transgender recognition often brought up the specter of sexual
predators in sex-segregated spaces as an argument against the
passage of transgender rights legislation. Interestingly, such fears
centered exclusively on women’s spaces, particularly restrooms.
What do sexual predators have to do with transgender
rights? Moreover, why is the concern only about women’s
spaces? In our research, we find that opponents are making an
argument against any bodies perceived as male having a legal
right to enter a woman-only space because they imagine such
bodies to present a sexual danger to women and children. Under
this logic, they often conflate “sexual predators” (imagined
to be deviant men) and transgender women (imagined to be
always male). This exclusive focus on “males” suggests that it
is genitals—not gender identity and expression—that are driv-
ing what we term “gender panics”—moments where people
react to a challenge to the gender binary by frantically asserting
its naturalness. Because most people are assumed by others to
be heterosexual, sex-segregated bathrooms are imagined by
many people to be “sexuality-free” zones. Opponents’ focus
on bathrooms centers on fears of sexual impropriety that could
be introduced by allowing the “wrong bodies”—or, to be more
precise, penises—into spaces deemed as “for women only.”
Gender panics, thus, could easily be relabeled “penis panics.”
The shift from gender panics to penis panics as a point of analysis
accounts for critics’ sole focus on the women’s restroom—a
location that, opponents argue, should be “penis-free.”
While such arguments are not always politically effec-
tive—Gainesville, for instance, did not repeal its ordinance—they
reinforce gender inequality in a number of ways. Opponents
disseminate ideas that women are weak and in need of protec-
tion—what one of us (Laurel Westbrook) frames as creating a
“vulnerable subjecthood”—and that men are inherent rapists. At
the same time, they generate fear and misunderstanding around
transgender people along with the suggestion that transgender
people are less deserving of protection than cisgender women
and children (cisgender people are those whose gender identity
conforms to their biological sex). As such, the battle over trans-
gender people’s access to sex-segregated spaces is both about
transgender rights and about either reproducing or challenging
Contexts, Vol. 14, No. 3, pp. 26-31. ISSN 1536-5042, electronic ISSN 1537-60521. © 2015 American Sociological Association. http://contexts.sagepub.com. DOI 10.1177/1536504215596943
In none of the media accounts we analyzed have opponents been able to cite an actual case of bathroom sexual assault after the passage of transgender-supportive policies.
A promo image used by the Canada Family Action group in protest of a bill adding “gender expression” and “gender identity” to the list of prohibited grounds for discrimination.
A Maryland Group used a popular image to try to stop what they called a “Bathroom Bill.”
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28 contexts.org
damaging beliefs about what it is to be a man and what it is
to be a woman.
transgender rights legislation to “bathroom bills” The public response to transgender-supportive policies has
varied across different social contexts. Within gender-integrated
settings, such as college campuses and workplaces, the trend
toward transgender-inclusive health care coverage and non-
discrimination policies in terms of hiring and promotion has
become widely accepted as an important dimension of diversity.
Yet, transgender inclusion in sex-segregated settings has proven
to be more controversial. In particular, the part of inclusive poli-
cies that allows transgender people to use a bathroom that aligns
with their gender identity and expression—rather than with their
chromosomes or genital confi gurations—has generated a great
deal of opposition.
Supportive politicians and advocates frame transgender
rights policies as a way to alleviate discrimination against trans-
gender and gender variant people. Opponents, in contrast,
reframe the debate as being about bathroom access. This con-
certed effort to focus on bathrooms was evident in the media
accounts we analyzed. Critics did not discuss “transgender rights
legislation,” but rather “bathroom bills.” Reporters picked up
on this aspect of the debate, creating pithy, attention-grabbing
headlines such as “Critics: Flush Bathroom Bill” (Boston Herald)
and “Bathroom Bill Goes Down the Drain” (New Hampshire
Business Review).
Opponents repeatedly expressed their belief that public
restrooms have to be segregated on the basis of gender and that
people’s genitals, not their gender identities, should determine
bathroom access. Kris Mineau of the conservative Massachusetts
Family Institute, quoted in The Republican, worried about the
potential outcome of the proposed state transgender rights bill.
“This is a far-reaching piece of legislation that will disrupt the
privacy of bathrooms, showers, and exercise facilities includ-
ing those in public schools… . This bill opens the barn door
to everybody. There is no way to know who of the opposite
biological sex is using the facility for the right purpose.” Evelyn
Reilly, a spokesperson for the same institute, told The Berkshire
Eagle, “Men and women bathrooms [sic] have been separated
for ages for a reason… . Women need to feel private and safe
when they’re using those facilities.”
In actuality, the segregation of public bathrooms on the basis
of gender is a relatively recent phenomenon in the United States.
Prior to the Victorian era, men and women used the same priv-
ies and outhouses. With the invention of indoor plumbing came
water closets and later bathrooms, which were not segregated
until Victorian ideals of feminine modesty—and the mixing of
men and women in factory work—established a new precedent.
By the 1920s, laws requiring segregated public facilities were de
rigueur across the country. As sociologist Erving Goffman has
pointed out, men and women share bathrooms in their homes.
In public restrooms, by contrast, the sense that men and women
are opposite is exacerbated by the placement of open urinals in
men’s rooms and the private stalls found in women’s rooms. Such
separation, then, is not biologically necessary but rather socially
mandated. Highlighting this point, bathroom segregation is not
universal, as some European countries, such as France, often have
gender-integrated public restrooms.
Transgender-supportive policies present a sharp challenge
to this bathroom segregation logic. Opponents struggle with the
sense that their belief in a static gender binary determined by
chromosomes and genitals is being undermined by institutional
and governmental support for transgender people. The outcome
of the resulting gender panics is often a call to socially reinforce
what opponents position as a natural division of men and
women. In a “Letter to the Editor” in The Bangor Daily News,
a concerned author contests transgender bathroom access,
An ad released by the group CitizenLink in Colorado.An ad released by the group CitizenLink in Colorado.An ad released by the group CitizenLink in Colorado.
C it iz
en Li
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29S U M M E R 2 0 1 5 c o n t e x t s
arguing, “What makes an individual able to claim gender? As I
always understood it growing up—and I know I am not alone
in this—your anatomy dictates your sex.” A follow-up response
on The Bangor Daily News “ClickBack” page read, “The policy
should be boys use the men’s room and girls use the lady’s room.
Identification does not change physical plumbing.”
These ideological collisions between those advocating
transgender rights and those who insist on sex at birth deter-
mining gender, and the ensuing panics, put into high relief the
often-invisible social criteria for “who counts” as a woman and a
man in our society. Yet, in our study, such gender panics focused
exclusively on the threat that transgender-supportive bills pres-
ent to cisgender women and children. Highlighting this point,
opponents to trans-inclusive policies proposed in Massachusetts
and New Hampshire in 2009 and 2010 repeatedly discussed
that these policies would, as The Associated Press reported,
“put women and children at risk.” It was
in these fears of “risk” that the image of
the sexual predator emerged.
enter the sexual predator The conception of the “sexual pred-
ator” is deeply gendered. People often
assume that they can establish whether
someone is a potential sexual threat by
simply determining if they are male (pos-
sible threat) or female (not a likely threat).
Critics charge that transgender rights laws
will make such determination difficult and,
will, like “sheep’s clothing” on a wolf, give predators open
access to those seen as vulnerable. Evelyn Reilly, a spokesperson
for the Massachusetts Family Institute, argued that a proposed
state-level law protecting gender identity and gender expression
would allow “a sexual predator using the guise of gender confu-
sion to enter the restrooms.” In Colorado, Bruce Hausknecht,
a policy analyst for the evangelical organization Focus on the
Family Action, fought against a proposed transgender rights
bill in 2009, stating: “The fear… is that a sexual predator would
attempt to enter the women’s facilities, and the public accom-
modation owner would feel they had no ability to challenge
that.” In Nevada in 2009, conservative activist Tony Dane told
The Las Vegas Review-Journal that transgender-rights policies
would allow men to legally enter women’s restrooms “in drag,”
which would “make it easier for them to attack women and
evade capture.”
from gender panics to penis panics Transgender people, along with gay men and lesbian
women, have a long history of being conflated with pedophiles
and other sexual predators. Within the articles we analyzed,
opponents worried about what transgender women, who they
assume have penises, might do if they were allowed access to
women-only spaces. Demonstrating such concern, reporters
frequently highlighted critics’ fears about “male anatomies”
or “male genitalia” in women’s spaces. Transgender women in
these narratives are always anchored to their imagined “male
anatomies,” and thus become categorized as potential sexual
threats to those vested with vulnerable subjecthood, namely
cisgender women and children.
Explicit bodily criteria for access to sex- segregated spaces can quell gender panics, but these criteria force transgender people into restrictive, normative forms of gendered embodiment that perpetuate the belief that genitals and gender must be linked.
The bathroom sign at the Electronic Frontier Foundation in California.
A poster on the campus of the University of Bristol.
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In contrast, transgender men—assumed by critics to be
“really women” because they do not possess a “natural”
penis—are relatively invisible in these debates. Transgender
men are mentioned directly by opponents only once in all of the
articles we analyzed. After conservative opponent Tony Dane
expressed his concern that the proposed Nevada policy would
make women “uncomfortable” in the bathroom because they
might have to see a transgender woman, a reporter for The Las
Vegas Review-Journal asked about his position on transgender
men. He stated, “they should use the women’s bathroom,
regardless of whom it makes uncomfortable, because that’s
where they’re supposed to go.” Transgender men are never
referenced as potential sexual threat to women, men, or chil-
dren. Instead, they are put into a category that sociologist Mimi
Schippers labels “pariah femininities.” They are not dangerous
to cisgender women and children, but they also do not warrant
protection and rights because they fall outside of gender and
sexual normativity.
As our research reveals, policies that would allow trans-
gender people to access sex-segregated spaces and do not
have specific requirements for genital surgeries generate a
great deal of panic. These panics matter, as they frequently
result in a reshaping of the language of such policies to require
extensive bodily changes before transgender people have access
to particular rights and locations. Such changes place severe
limitations on transgender people who may not want or cannot
afford genital surgeries. Further, while explicit bodily criteria for
access to sex-segregated spaces can quell gender panics, these
criteria force transgender people into restrictive and normative
forms of gendered embodiment that perpetuate the belief that
genitals and gender must be linked.
transgender rights and the struggle for gender equality
In 2011, the National Center for Transgender Equality and
the National Gay and Lesbian Task Force published “Injustice at
Every Turn,” a report that highlights the findings of the largest
ever survey of the experiences of transgender and gender vari-
ant people. The report documents wide-ranging experiences of
discrimination. For instance, respondents had double the rate
of unemployment compared to the general population and
90% reported experiencing workplace discrimination, including
being unable to access a bathroom at work that matched their
gender identity.
Anti-discrimination legislation that offers protections for a
person’s gender identity and gender expression is an important
strategy for addressing inequality in hiring and promotion.
Additionally, these policies allow transgender people to use
public accommodations, such as bathrooms, in line with their
gender identity. In other words, a transgender man with a beard
would not be legally required to use the women’s restroom
simply because he had been assigned female at birth. While the
Vassar College students stage a multi-gender bathroom sit-in.
Pe te
, Fl
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31S U M M E R 2 0 1 5 c o n t e x t s 31
adoption of transgender-supportive policies has grown rapidly at
the state, city, and corporate level in the last ten years, in 2015
there are limited federal protections—a situation that would be
addressed by the passage of the Employment Non-Discrimination
Act (also known as ENDA). The regional variation in protection
for gender identity and gender expression—and the widespread
violence and discrimination aimed at trans-
gender people—makes this a key political
issue for gender equality.
unmasking the real debate Gender panics gain legitimacy in the
realm of debate because many people
believe that women and young children
are inherently vulnerable and in need of
protection from men. In dominant U.S. culture, men—or more
specifically, people assumed to have penises—are both con-
ceived of as the potential protectors of vulnerable people they
have relational ties to, such as wives, sisters, daughters, and
mothers, and a potential source of sexual threat to others.
This idea emerges from a belief that men constantly seek out
sexual interactions and will resort to violence to achieve these
desires. As transgender women are placed into the category
of persons with penises—making them, for many opponents,
“really men”—they become an imagined source of threat to
cisgender women and children. And, as there are no protective
men present in women’s restrooms, opponents to transgender
rights imagine women (and often children, who are likely to
accompany women to the restroom) as uniquely imperiled by
these non-discrimination policies.
Proponents of transgender-inclusive laws and policies can
make strong arguments about the need for protections. The
increasingly large body of empirical data on transgender people
in the United States emphasizes that transgender people are
much more likely to face violence in the restroom rather than to
perpetrate such violence. In fact, in none of the media accounts
we analyzed have opponents been able to cite an actual case
of bathroom sexual assault after the passage of transgender-
supportive policies. But deep-rooted cultural fears about the
vulnerability of women and children are hard to counter.
It is not to be suggested that sexual assault is not a serious
and troubling real issue; rather, such assaults rarely occur in pub-
lic restrooms and no cities or states that have passed transgender
rights legislation have witnessed increases in sexual assaults in
public restrooms after the laws have gone into effect. Raising
the specter of the sexual predator in debates around transgender
rights should be unmasked for the multiple ways it can perpetu-
ate gender inequality. Under the guise of “protecting” women,
critics reproduce ideas about their weakness; depict males as
assailants, and work to deny rights to transgender people.
Moreover, they suggest that there should be a hierarchy of rights
in which cisgender women and children are more deserving of
protections than transgender people.
Beliefs about gender difference form the scaffolding of
structural gender inequality, as those that are “opposite” cannot
be equal. Thus, bathroom sex-segregation must be reconsidered
if we want to push gender equality forward. Many college
campuses are moving toward gender-integrated bathrooms and
widespread availability of gender-neutral bathrooms. And, in
California, bill AB1266, passed in 2013, authorizes high school
students to use bathrooms that fit their gender identity and gen-
der expression. These examples demonstrate that the social order
of the bathroom can change. While such changes may spark
gender panics, these examples suggest that the battles fought
over bathroom access can be won in favor of gender equality.
recommended readings: Sheila Cavanagh. 2010. Queering Bathrooms: Gender, Sexuality, and the Hygienic Imagination. Toronto, ON: University of Toronto Press. An instructive and exhaustive look at the cultural construc- tion of bathrooms, including how they maintain binary under- standings of gender and disadvantage queer and transgender people.
Erving Goffman. 1977. “The Arrangement Between the Sexes,” Theory and Society 4(3): 301-331. This classic article theorizes the social construction of gender by exploring several venues, includ- ing bathrooms, which are designed to support the deeply held view that males are opposite and superior to females.
Jaime M. Grant, Lisa A. Mottet, Justin Tanis, Jack Harrison, Jody L. Herman, and Mara Keisling. 2011. Injustice at Every Turn: A Report of the National Transgender Discrimination Survey. Wash- ington, D.C.: National Center for Transgender Equality and the National Gay and Lesbian Task Force. Summarizes the findings of the largest ever survey of transgender and gender variant people, including experiences of unemployment, discrimination, and violence.
Harvey Molotoch and Laura Noren (eds). 2010. Toilet: Public Rest- rooms and the Politics of Sharing. New York: New York University Press. An interdisciplinary set of essays examining the history and implication of public restrooms.
Kristen Schilt is in the department of sociology at The University of Chicago. She is
the author of Just One of the Guys? Transgender Men and the Persistence of Gender
Inequality. Laurel Westbrook is in the department of sociology at Grand Valley
State University in Allendale, MI. Her multi-method studies revolve around the inner
workings of the sex/gender/sexuality system.
Raising the specter of the sexual predator in debates around transgender rights should be unmasked for the multiple ways it can perpetuate gender inequality.
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You May Ask Yourself an introduction to thinking like a sociologist
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You May Ask Yourself
Dalton Conley Princeton university
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an introduction to thinking like a sociologist
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